Map and Gazetteer

Overview of Military Sites in Early Roman Palestine

 

[Click Map for Full-Sized Image]

 

Introductory Comments

The purpose of this section is simply to provide additional detail for those sites listed on the map – that is, a gazetteer. This gazetteer summarizes enough content to warrant a multi-volume book, should one desire to do so.[1] For the sake of brevity, this gazetteer will provide only essential information for the study.  Consequently, interest will once again be restricted: only sites in Palestine that were in use at some point from Herod the Great until the outbreak of the Bar Kokhba Revolt will be discussed.[2] Included are military towers, fortresses, fortlets, as well as walled settlements and those otherwise believed to hold a garrison, regardless of size.  Each site will simply address the dating of military presence during this period as well as the evidence for that presence and its dating.  Like the rest of DMIPERP, this one gestures in the direction of completeness but makes no claims to such.

Further comments on the sites are prudent.  First, a glance at the map shows a disproportion of sites located in the modern-day state of Israel and occupied territories.  This is not intended to prejudice one region of ancient Palestine over another, but is attributable to Israeli policies favourable to excavation and publication; this includes Israeli institutions excavating Palestinian territories as well.  Jordan has significantly increased archaeological support in recent years, but even so data from Jordan is nowhere near as extensive nor as readily accessible.  Excavations in Syria have been nearly impossible in recent years due to the ongoing civil war.  Second, the present writer is not an archaeologist, severely limiting my ability to interpret or comment upon finds; I generally defer to experts in the following entries. In general, I do not include survey data unless it can be confined to a small period (e.g., “Herodian” or “1st century,” but not “Roman-Byzantine” or “Roman”). The present writer’s illiteracy of modern Hebrew – one of the preferred languages for publishing minor archaeological sites in the Levant – has seriously inhibited his ability to complete this work in an exhaustive manner.

Any sites listed outside of Palestine on the map are of interest because one of the texts listed in DMIPERP relates to it, either being found there or discussing some person hailing therefrom. Also note that Josephus’s numbers are provided for convenience without the assumption of their accuracy.  The scale of certainty used below is: impossible < improbable < possible < probable < certain; this corresponds – very roughly – with the likelihood I that would personally assess at that particular site: impossible (0-20% probability of military presence), improbable (20-40%), possible (40-60%), probable (60-80%), and certain (80-100%).  Distinction between the different periods is imprecise, but corresponds roughly to the following dates: Herodian 37 BCE-6 CE; pre-War 6-66 CE; post-War 73-132 CE. This excludes siege camps, field works, wartime-only fortifications, and wartime garrisons (especially those 66-73 CE), whose use was brief enough that it does little to aid the present study.

The map was made by the present author with BibleMapper software (the .map file I created can be downloaded here).  Omitted from the present study are sites occupied or fortified only for the duration of the Jewish War, as well as those in Syria, the Nabataea/Arabia, and the Syrian Desert (unless a find discussed in DMIPERP was found there).

The symbols used are the following: a cross (+) indicates either a site where there is no reason to suspect military presence, but a relevant find was discovered, or an item from DMIPERP that was discovered outside of Palestine.  An empty circle (○) indicates a site where there was probably only a pre-War military presence. A solid square (■) indicates a site where there was probably a military presence both before and after the War. A solid pentagram (★) indicates a site where there was probably only a post-War military presence.  The basis for these assessments can be seen below in the gazetteer. Milestones are not depicted on the map, unless they are especially significant.

 

 

Adida

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Minor fortification and Herodian pottery indicate its use during that time.  There is no archaeological evidence from the Roman period, meaning Vespasian’s camp there must have been temporary (Josephus J.W. 4.486). See the discussion in (Fischer, Isaac, and Roll 1996: 173-176).

 

Aerita

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: The inscriptions of Ulpius Alexander (§§7273) indicate that a veteran settled there with his wife, but there is otherwise no reason to suspect a significant military presence.

 

Alexandrium

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: A lead sling shot may have been found there (§1). Josephus reports restoration of the existing fort in 38 BCE (A.J. 14.419) and occasional use by Herod. Nothing is reported after annexation, though (Tsafrir and Magen 1993) discusses the possibility of a Judaean garrison afterwards.  The extensive destruction at the site was probably from the Jewish War.

 

Al-Habbasa

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: Herodian tower found. See discussion in (Prag and Barnes 1996).

 

Amathus

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Destroyed in the events after Herod’s death (Josephus, A.J. 17.277), but there is no indication it was rebuilt.

 

Anthedon

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War possible; post-War possible

Evidence: Augustus gave Anthedon to Herod, who then rebuilt it and renamed it Agrippium (Josephus, A.J. 13.357). No remains have been found at the alleged site, but see the soldier recruited from the city of Anthedon in §184.

 

Antipatris

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: Antipatris (formerly Aphek) was built by Herod and named in honour of his father (Josephus, J.W. 1.417). The city was destroyed during the War but eventually rose in prominence under the Severans; it is not clear when the inscription §65 was left there.  It is possible but unverifiable that a garrison remained here during the entire period of interest. See the discussion in (Beck and Kochavi 1993).

 

Aqed

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Fortifications and towers were used under Herod and probably briefly after.  They seem to have been abandoned under Rome before being expanded as part of the Bar Kokhba War. See the discussion with bibliography in (Fischer, Isaac, and Roll 1996: 122-123).

 

‘Arad, Tel

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War possible

Evidence: The fort evinces occupation during the first century but was abandoned either during the Jewish War or after the annexation of Nabataean Arabia. See the discussion in (Aharoni 1993).

 

‘Arak Hala, Khirbet

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War certain

Evidence: Graffiti (§69, §75) suggests the fortress was built by the time of Trajan.  It seems to have housed two auxiliary units after the War: cohors I Thracum milliaria and possibly ala Antiana Gallorum et Thracum.  See the discussion in (Zissu and Ecker 2014).

 

‘Arorer, Tel

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: The fort protecting this site was constructed under Herod and abandoned after the Jewish War.  This occupation seems to have been a single, pre-War stage; see (Biran 1993).

 

Arous

Period: Herodian probable; Roman improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Fortified under Herod, as can be verified archaeologically. It was razed by Nabataean auxiliaries in the unrest after Herod’s death (Josephus, J.W. 2.69). See discussion in (Dar 1986: 221-223).

 

Ascalon

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: The fortified city of Ascalon was never part of Herod’s Judaea, but a cohort and an ala are well attested (Josephus J.W. 3.12). Some of its soldiers are attested abroad before and after the War (§136 in Italia, §161 in Syria, §188 in Macedonia) and the cohort’s diplomas are also well attested. Countermarks for legio X Fretensis are abundant in the post-War period as well.  Particularly interesting is a Semitic individual who served in the eighth praetorian cohort after the period of interest (IGR 1.266).

 

Atrash, Khirbet al-

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Tower attested with Herodian finds.  Not occupied from end of Second Temple Period until the fourth century.  See the discussion in (Fischer, Isaac, and Roll 1996: 124-125).

 

Azotus

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: The city also known as Ashdod was rebuilt by Gabinius after its destruction by Pompey.  It retained its prominence under Herod but was destroyed in Jewish War and declined after that point. There is no reason to think Vespasian’s garrison remained after the War’s conclusion (Josephus, J.W. 4.130).

 

Azoun

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: A military farmstead was abandoned either during Herod’s reign or shortly afterward.  A fort was occupied at the same site in the latter part of the 2nd century.  See the discussion in (Dar 1986: 261).

 

Bakarat

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: Herodian tower found. See discussion in (Prag and Barnes 1996).

 

Bathyra

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War probable; post-War probable

Evidence: Tentatively identified with Basir, Jordan, though this is far from certain (Naveh and Beit Eri are also commonly suggested as Bathyra).  Josephus makes extensive reference to this veteran colony (A.J. 17.23-31). It was initially 500 Babylonian Jewish cavalrymen under Herod the Great, though it is known their numerous descendants participated in the Jewish War; their connection with the site of Bathyra lasted through Agrippa II, and they seem to have risen to prominence in other Batanaean cities (e.g., Gamla).  See the discussions in (Applebaum 1989: 47-65; Cohen 1972; Shatzman 1991: 175-180).

 

Beersheba

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: A moderately sized fort is evidenced during Herodian times. A smaller one was built by Romans sometime after 112 CE, most likely after the Bar Kokhba War.

 

Beit Nattif

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War possible

Evidence: The inscriptions of Titus Flavius Vale (§§5455) are the only evidence here, though their significance for the military presence is indeterminate. Any military presence in Beit Nattif was minimal.

 

Bethel

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Fortified by Bacchides (1 Macc 9:50) and grew to city status. Though Josephus reports it was destroyed by Vespasian (Josephus, J.W. 4.551), no burn layer from the Jewish War was found.  Hadrian established a garrison there after the Bar Kokhba War.

 

Beth Guvrin

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Though it eventually had a substantial military presence as Eleutheropolis, this was only after the Bar Kokhba War. Consequently, it is not included on the map.  See the discussion in (Zissu and Ecker 2014).

 

Bethsaida

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War certain; post-War impossible

Evidence: Also known as Julias.  Fortified under Philip around 30 CE (Josephus, A.J. 18.28), but it was abandoned after the War.

 

Bethar

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War probable; post-War certain

Evidence: The fortifications erected under Herod or before the Jewish War were supplemented by Bar Kokhba’s rebels, eventually acting as their capital; see (Ussishkin 2008).  The siege of Bethar is perhaps the best known event from the Bar Kokhba Revolt. This is supported by the ruined fortress at the site and AE 1896.53.

 

Caesarea Maritima

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: Abundant evidence throughout all periods, including literary, archaeological, and epigraphic. Herod the Great refounded Strato’s Tower in the third quarter of is reign, which acted as the capital of the province of Judaea after its annexation.  Pliny the Elder (Nat. 5.69) notes Vespasian’s founding of a veteran colony there. Along with Sebaste, it was one of the largest recruiting sites for soldiers during all periods of interest.

 

Canan, Khirbet

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Two large towers seem to have been in used during pre-War phase.  See very brief discussion in (Barouch 1997: 130).

 

Canatha

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: The Canathene auxiliary units are well attested during the pre- and post-War phases.  Its military significance during the Herodian period is evident in Josephus (A.J. 15.108-120, J.W. 1.366-368). See also the intriguing, but undated, inscription CIS 2.169.

 

Caparcotna

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War certain

Evidence: Initially garrisoned by legio II Traiana (117-120 CE) and then by legio VI Ferrata (starting 120 CE), the site was later known as Legio (previously Megiddo).  There is no evidence for military occupation at earlier periods.  See the many archaeological reports and studies by Yotam Tepper and  a few inscriptions  (§91; §307).

 

Capernaum

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: Q 7:1-10 provides the only pre-War evidence, which depicts an historically conceivable scene with a centurion assigned to a border village that saw increased traffic in light of Herod’s and Antipas’s building projects.  With the border shifts after the expansion of Agrippa II’s kingdom in 55 CE, however, military presence becomes less likely. Extensive digs at Capernaum provide no evidence of military presence until Hadrian’s reign (§315).  See the discussion in (Reed 2000: 155-156).

 

Capharabis

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: Josephus (J.W. 4.552-553) notes that the town was fortified during the War. (Shatzman 1991: 238) offers the appealing suggestion that it was fortified under Herod the Great and refortified by Jewish rebels.

 

Capitolias

Period: Herodian impossible; pre-War impossible; post-War probable

Evidence: Capitolias was a fortified city that was likely founded in the late 90s CE. Mid-second century inscriptions indicate the recruitment of local provincials into the military; see (Mittmann 1970: 169-171).

 

Casphor

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War possible

Evidence: Tentatively identified with Khisfin, though el-Muzeirib is another common suggestion. Military significance is noted in 1 Macc 5:26 and by §62, with little in the extended period in between the two attestations.

 

Daliyah, Khirbet ad-

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Tower that saw use under Herod and until the Jewish War, though its initial use as a watchtower was exchanged for agricultural purposes in the first century.  Numismatic evidence stops immediately before the War and it was not reoccupied until Byzantine times. See the discussion in (Fischer, Isaac, and Roll 1996: 144-146).

 

Damascus

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: Damascus had its well-documented auxiliary forces, as well as other soldiers recruited therefrom (§184). It is not certain when it became part of the Decapolis, though, since earlier inscriptions do not use the Pompeian dating system that was typical of the other cities.

 

Deir e-Scheir

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: The single inscription of Diomedes (§30) is the only evidence at the site.  It is difficult to justify conjecturing a military presence on this basis alone.

 

Diyatheh

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War probable

Evidence: Civilian occupation began in the pre-War period with a tower built some point during the second century CE.  More military buildings were constructed after the period of interest. See (Kennedy and Riley 1990: 196).

 

Doq

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: The only literary evidence of occupation at this site comes from the Hasmonaean era.  (Netzer 2006: 206-207) claims that an unpublished excavation indicates its use during the Herodian period.  It is possible that the fortress was also use under Herod, but this likelihood decreases as time goes on.

 

Ein at-Taraba

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: A large tower acted as a road station in use during the early Roman period. See the brief overview in (Barouch 1997: 127).

 

Ein Gedi

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War probable

Evidence: Two Herodian fortlets were discovered above Ein Gedi, as discussed in (Ofer and Meshel 1986). It is likely the military presence continued until the War, given its fortifications (Josephus J.W. 3.55) and a bathhouse constructed 117-118 CE.  There is evidence for sporadic military presence in the post-War era. (Cotton 1996) observes that comparison of §43 with P.Yadin 19 indicates cohors I Thracum milliaria was present from at least May 124 and left that particular camp by April 128, but §211 shows the unit remained in Palestine – probably at Hebron. (Davies and Magness 2013) recently disputed that that there was any significant post-War presence at the site, though.

 

Eithae

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: The single inscription of Diomedes (§31) is the only evidence at the site.  It is difficult to justify conjecturing a military presence on this basis alone.

 

Eliad

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War possible

Evidence: The only evidence is §67, which may be an isolated inscription or from a much later period.

 

Emmaus

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War certain

Evidence: Identified tentatively with Amwas, though other sites are sometimes suggested (e.g., Motza). No military buildings have been found, but a number of post-War inscriptions have been recovered (§§2729; §59), which seems to have been the garrison for some combination of legio V Macedonica, cohors III Bracaraugustanorum, and/or cohors VI Ulpia Petraeorum.  Josephus never explicitly mentions a garrison, but (Fischer, Isaac, and Roll 1996: 153-159) notes that he treats it as a location to which a sizable military force might be stationed, albeit unfortified before the War (e.g., A.J. 14.436; J.W. 4.443-445, 5.42).

 

Esbon

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War improbable; post-War impossible

Evidence: Josephus refers to Herod’s settling of a veteran colony in Esbonitis – the district of Esbon (A.J. 15.293-296). This was evidently done in the mid-20s BCE. It was annexed to Syria after Herod’s death. Excavators found a single stratum of occupation that ended with the Jewish War.

 

Eshtemoa, Bank of

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War possible

Evidence: Fortress at unnamed site on Eshtemoa River; it may have been in use from the Hasmonaean period. See the discussion in (Barouch 1997: 129).

 

Far, Khirbet el-

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War probable

Evidence: Coin and pottery data apparently suggest the fort was constructed during the Flavian dynasty; see (Shatzman 1983: 141), though his citations of academic sources seem to be erroneous.

 

Fiq

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: A diploma for Gaius Lucius from Nicia was found at Fiq (§211).  He had most recently served in Syria Palaestinae. There is no pre-Bar Kokhba evidence for military at the site and this seems a thin basis to conjecture one.

 

Firdusi, Khirbet

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: A commander’s keep and acropolis were found, dating to the Hasmonaean period but in use under Herod; evidence is lacking for later periods.  See the discussion in (Dar 1986: 218-221).

 

Gaba

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War probable

Evidence: Josephus reports that Herod the Great settled a veteran colony there in the mid-20s CE (J.W. 3.36). Agrippa II recruited some 200 men from there during the War (Life 115-118), though it was razed by the rebels (J.W. 2.458-460). A tower has been found at the site.

 

Gadara

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War probable; post-War certain

Evidence: Gadara was not fortified under Herod, though he may have garrisoned the site before it was removed from his domain. The Roman city walls and its towers have been excavated.  Post-War evidence is abundant both archaeologically and epigraphically (§35, §50, §57, §63, §158).

 

Gadora

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War probable; post-War certain

Evidence: Josephus describes Gadora as the metropolis of Peraea (J.W. 4.413).  An epigraph attests the continued presence of the military there after the War (§39).

 

Galilee (unknown sites)

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War possible; post-War possible

Evidence: Josephus mentions three anonymous fortresses that Herod captured from Marion of Tyre (J.W. 1.238-240, A.J. 14.297-299).  One can only speculate as to where these were and whether they were used later.

 

Gamla

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War impossible

Evidence: The city was fortified with military commanders living there, as is evident both archaeologically and from Josephus.  It was destroyed during the War and not occupied again until the fourth century. See also §§114116.

 

Gaza

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: Gabinius rebuilt and fortified Gaza and it was presumably still in this state when it came under Herod’s authority in 30 BCE (Josephus A.J. 14.88); Strabo implausibly states that 40,000 troops were raised from there (Geogr. 16.2.28). During the pre-War period it was detached from Judaea and seems to have been administered with Ascalon and thus had their auxiliaries present; the geographer Mela – writing in the first century – notes its size and fortification (1.11).  After the Jewish War, soldiers continued to be drawn from the city (§184).

 

Gerasa

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War certain

Evidence: The military presence in after the War is better attested than anywhere else in the Decapolis.  Numerous inscriptions attest military presence and soldiers recruited therefrom.

 

Giscala

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: John of Giscala upgraded its existing fortifications during the War, but the city was destroyed soon after.

 

Gittha

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War probable; post-War possible

Evidence: Identification of the site is not certain, but Josephus notes the fortification of the village (J.W. 1.326).

 

Giv’at Ram

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War certain

Evidence: A tile factory for legio X Fretensis was uncovered, as with a number of stamped tiles and bricks.  The previous civilian site was abandoned in 67 CE.  See the discussion in (Magness 2005).

 

Gophna

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War certain

Evidence: Josephus notes the settlement of a post-War colony for the protection of priests loyal to Rome (J.W. 6.113-115).

 

Hamas, Khirbet

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War probable

Evidence: A road station in use from Hasmonaean until Byzantine times. See the brief overview in (Barouch 1997: 127-128).

 

Harei ‘Anim

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War probable; post-War possible

Evidence: (Magness 2003: 43) examines the survey data of this fort and concludes all pottery derives from the first century.  Survey data, however, is of limited interpretive value.

 

Harrah, al-

Period: Herodian unlikely; pre-War unlikely; post-War unlikely

Evidence: §32 was found there, though there is little reason to suspect it indicates any sort of sustained military presence.

 

Hebron

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War possible; post-War probable

Evidence: Believed to be the post-War garrison of cohors I milliaria Thracum, a unit attested Judaea from its earliest surviving diplomas. However, most of the evidence for Hebron specifically comes well after period of interest (§224; CIL 16.139) or is undateable (AE 1979.633). The notable exception is the famous “Hebron Helmet” (often termed the “Italic G” type), which seems to have been rebel loot from the Bar Kokhba War. Two burn layers were detected during the Roman period, presumably corresponding to the Judaean and Bar Kokhba Wars.

 

Herodium

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Herod built a fortified palace that later served as his tomb.  It seems to have declined in significance after the War (cf. Josephus, J.W. 7.163).  Three defensive towers may have been built in the post-War period, but these towers were part of Jewish defensive systems leading up to the Bar Kokhba Revolt and not a Roman military construction.  See the numerous military graffiti §§117120.

 

Hippos

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: Hippos had thorough fortifications and at least part of them date to the earliest Roman period. Note also the soldiers recruited from there in §184 and §209. See the discussion in (Eisenberg 2013).

 

Hyrcania

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: The fortress of Hyrcania seems to have gone out of use soon after Herod’s death.

 

Idumaea (unknown sites)

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War possible

Evidence: Josephus refers to a veteran colony in Idumaea who rebelled against Archelaus after Herod’s death (J.W. 2.55, 2.76-77; A.J. 17.270, 17.297). Josephus reports impossible numbers as is typical – 2,000 initially rebelling, peaking at 10,000.

 

‘Ira, Tel

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Tower used during Herodian times, but it is difficult to ascertain whether the building had a military function in later periods. See (Shatzman 1983: 140-141).

 

Jaffa

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: §83 may attest a Herodian or early Roman soldier’s bread stamp; §71 attests an Egyptian centurion’s grandson’s presence in the city; a brick of legio X Fretensis that is typical of the early second century was also found. Note also its significance during the Jewish War (Josephus, J.W. 2.407-409).  It was fortified from the Bronze Age to the Byzantine period.

 

Jamnia

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War possible; post-War certain

Evidence: Also known as Yavneh, (Shatzman 1991: 266) deems a Herodian garrison probable (cf. Strabo, Geogr. 16.759) and rabbinic evidence indicates a military presence there after the War.

 

Jericho

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: Jericho was a major palace refounded under Herod and was probably popular among elites until the Jewish War.  Some soldiers were apparently already present at the time of Herod’s death (Josephus, J.W. 1.666-670). Jericho was protected by a number of nearby fortlets. After the War it saw significant decline and was only notable as a garrison town.

 

Jerusalem

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: The single best attested site for military presence in all Palestine. See the numerous finds in DMIPERP and frequent references in Josephus and other historians. It served as the headquarters for legio X Fretensis after the War.

 

Jotapata

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War impossible

Evidence: Josephus is described as strengthening existing fortifications at the site during his tenure as Galilee’s governor (Life 188). He reports that the city and its fortifications were subsequently razed by Romans in a famous siege (J.W. 3.141-339).

 

Julias

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War improbable

Evidence: Also known as Livias.  Fortified under Antipas (Josephus, A.J. 18.27), but razed during the War.

 

Kafr Hananya

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War certain

Evidence: A tile factory for legio VI Ferrata was set up during the reign of Hadrian. See the discussion in (Adan-Bayewitz 1997).

 

Kafr Laqif

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: (Dar 1986: 223) contends it was in use as a defensive structure during the Hellenistic and Herodian periods, though its fortified nature not certain.

 

Kafr Soum

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: §56 is a thin basis to conjecture a military presence.  More likely, he was an isolated veteran having settled there.

 

Kafr Sur
Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War probable

Evidence: A fort was in use the entire period of interest. See the discussion in (Dar 1986: 217-218).

 

Kaser, Khirbet el-

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War probable; post-War probable

Evidence: The fortress seems to have been in use from Herodian until its function changed in Byzantine times.  See the discussion in (Barouch 1997: 128-129).

 

Kaser, Rujum

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War possible

Evidence: Exact dates are difficult to ascertain based on the limited evidence. Roman pottery was found and (Barouch 1997: 129-130) suggests the mikveh indicates a foundation around the turn of the Era.

 

Kefira, Horvat

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: Though often dated to Hasmonaean period, recent comparanda suggest the fortress here was a Herodian construction – probably an unattested royal fortress, according to (Amit and Eschel 2002).

 

Kiliya, Khirbet el-

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War probable; post-War possible

Evidence: The site has seen heavy looting, leaving little to date its structures.  The little surviving evidence suggests continual use throughout the period of interest.  See the discussion in (Magen 1990).

 

Kiryat Arba

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War certain; post-War possible

Evidence: Fort in use during the first century. See the discussion in (Barouch 1995).

 

Kiryat Ye’arim

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War certain

Evidence: Also known as Abu Ghosh. Some post-War inscriptions were found here (§19, §25), one of which indicates the presence of an auxiliary camp. Presence before the War is unlikely. See discussion in (Fischer, Isaac, and Roll 1996: 113-120).

 

Kul’at Shuneh

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War possible; post-War probable

Evidence: Roman era fort that seems to have been used during the first and second centuries. See discussion in (Leibner 2009: 343-344).

 

Kypros

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Kypros was a sizable fortress built by Herod atop a Hasmonaean site destroyed by Pompey (A.J. 16.143).  It is possible it was used in pre- and post-War periods, but it became decreasingly essential after the annexation of Judaea and its fortifications were destroyed in the War – evidenced both by Josephus and archaeologically.

 

Machaerus

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War improbable

Evidence: The fortress has been extensively excavated, as discussed in (Vörös 2013). Pliny the Elder writing in the 70s describes Machaerus in the past tense (Nat. 5.71).

 

Maqatir, Khirbet el-

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War improbable

Evidence: A fortress built under Alexander Jannaeaus was used until 69 CE, after which the site was completely abandoned.  See (Wood 2014). (Thanks to Mark Hassler for clarifying the Herodian period; personal communication)

 

Masada

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: Post-War garrison was considerably smaller in number than in pre-War and Herodian times. Finds are extensive, as discussed in the remarkably thorough excavation reports.

 

Mazad, Horvat

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War impossible

Evidence: Watchtower and fortified road station attested, but it is not certain they were used militarily during the pre-War period. There is no evidence of any occupation at all after the Jewish War until Byzantine times. See the discussion in (Fischer, Isaac, and Roll 1996: 212-216).

 

Mazra’at Jabel Siri

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War probable

Evidence: Mount Hermon was an area of conflict between state and Ituraean forces; a fortress was built here during the Hellenistic period and its limited numismatic finds extend well after the Jewish War.  See the discussion in (Dar 1993: 150-154).

 

Michal, Tel

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War improbable

Evidence: Fortress shows use during pre-War phase only.  See the discussion in (Derfler 1989).

 

Moleatha

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War probable; post-War probable

Evidence: Josephus refers to a πύργος in which Agrippa I sought refuge (A.J. 18.147), though this was not certainly a military structure. It was probably also in used militarily during the Flavian period, though evidence could be stronger.

 

Motza

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War certain

Evidence: Veteran colony founded after the War (Josephus, J.W. 6.217) and the city eventually came to be known as Colonia. See the discussion in (Fischer, Isaac, and Roll 1996: 222-229).

 

Muraq, Khirbet el-

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War impossible

Evidence: Tower in use until its destruction in 68 CE; it may have acted as the residence for regional commander. See the brief overview in (Damati 1972).

 

Nahal Hever

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: §44 was found there, despite concerning people and events in Rabbath Moab. There is no reason to suppose a military presence at Nahal Hever.

 

Nahal Yattir

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War probable; post-War certain

Evidence: A fort and watchtower that seem to have been used from the beginning of the pre-War period until its capture by the Bar Kokhba rebels. See discussion in (Pažout 2015: 55-56).

 

Najar, Khirbet

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War probable

Evidence: Military farmstead occupied continuously from Persian to the Roman period.

 

Narbata

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War probable; post-War improbable.

Evidence: Fortified town during the early Herodian period, but destroyed and abandoned after the Jewish War.  See discussion in (Zertal 1993).

 

Neapolis

Period: Herodian impossible; pre-War impossible; post-War certain

Evidence: The city was founded after the Jewish War as a veteran colony, formerly known as Shechem.  Active military presence is attested by substantial evidence: (Isaac 1992: 430-431); §192193.

 

Nitai, Mount

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: Remnants of a fortification have been discovered. It may have been used by Herod himself during revolts at the beginning of his reign (Josephus, J.W. 1.312). See discussion in (Leibner 2009: 205-212).

 

Nuseib el-Aweishireh

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: A tower guarding Jericho that is believed to have been constructed under Herod (Shatzman 1991: 229).  As Jericho declined, one assumes the use of this tower did as well.

 

‘Ofarim

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Massive tower most likely constructed during early Roman phase. See discussion in (Riklin 1997).

 

Oresa

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: The site is tentatively identified with Khirbet Khirdusa.  Josephus reports Herodian presence (J.W. 1.266; A.J. 14.361, 14.400), but archaeological findings only attest late Roman and Byzantine presence at the site.  See the discussion in (Möller and Schmitt 1976: 151).

 

Paneas

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: The capital of Philip’s kingdom was fortified during his reign and presumably held a fair number of soldiers. Agrippa II also devoted enhanced the city’s status and built a heavily fortified palace at some point after the Emperor Titus’s death.  The military character of the city is further evidenced after its annexation in 97 CE (§42). It served as the headquarters for cohors III milliaria Thracum after its annexation.

 

Pella

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War probable

Evidence: Several forts and towers in the immediate vicinity of ancient Pella have been identified, ranging from the Hellenistic to Roman periods. See the survey in (Watson 1996).

 

Pente Komai

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: (Perowne 1956: 143) identified Pente Komai (Fandaqumia) as a “model settlement” for veterans established at the time of Sebaste’s foundation. While Perowne’s claim is commonly repeated in academic literature, I have found no publication supporting this claim with any evidence whatsoever. It is consequently left off of the map.

 

Philadelphia

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: Its Hellenistic fortifications are known and Josephus reports a supporting fortress nearby (A.J. 15.148-150, J.W. 1.380).  Additional fortifications are also evidenced during the 2nd century, as are numerous inscriptions attesting or recruited from it (§147, §162, §198, §204, §295, §363).

 

Philotheria

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War possible

Evidence: Also known as Beit Yerah and Khirbet Kerak.  Philotheria was known for its fortifications in the later Roman period.  While a garrison may have coincided with the promotion to city status in 130 CE, it cannot be confidently dated thus and so is omitted from the map. See the overview in (Chancey 2002: 98).

 

Qasr Kuah

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Military farmstead occupied in the first century BCE with a small fort. See the discussion in (Dar 1986: 13).

 

Qasr e-Lejah

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Fortified military farm used form the Hellenistic period to the first century. See the discussion in (Dar 1986: 10-12).

 

Qatt, Khirbet el-

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War probable

Evidence: A small, towerless fortress found with pottery from the periods of interest. See (Kochavi 1972: no. 79).

 

Qeren Naphtali

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: A Seleucid fortress seems to have been in use until the exile of Antipas.  The borders of Galilee shrank somewhat when it was annexed to Judaea and Qeren Naphtali thus became part of Syria proper.  See the discussion in (Aviam 1997).

 

Qumran

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Qumran held a fortified manor with a tower that was in use until the War.  It was razed during the Jewish War (whether by sicarii or Romans is unclear), but Roland de Vaux claims it soon after held a small garrison (de Vaux 1973). De Vaux’s evidence backing this claim is thin. See converse to the assessment here, the summarization in (Cargill 2009).

 

Ramat Hanadiv

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War impossible

Evidence: A fortified tower at Horvat ‘Eleq was destroyed in the War, when the village was also abandoned.  See the discussion in (Hirschfeld 1995).

 

Raphana

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: Raphana was never under Herodian authority, but occupation during that phase is uncertain.  Legio XII Fulminata garrisoned there by 14 CE and legio III Gallica took up residence in the former’s structures after the War.

 

Rujum Abu Hashabe

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War possible

Evidence: Pre-Flavian tower found with Roman pottery. See discussion in (Fischer, Isaac, and Roll 1996: 244-246).

 

Rujum el-Dir

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War possible

Evidence: (Barouch 1997: 128) posits continuous presence at the site from Herodian to Byzantine times, though the building did not last that long.

 

Rujum el-Hamiri

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War improbable

Evidence: Fort in use before the War as evidenced by coins and other finds. See the discussion in (Barouch 1995; 1997: 130-132).

 

Salit, Horvat

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War probable; post-War certain

Evidence: Fortress that was occupied in the first and second centuries.  For reasons that are unclear, (Alon 1986) identifies it exclusively as post-War.  My understanding of the data is such that it is equally consistent with a pre-War presence as well.

 

Sampho

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Tentatively identified with As Saphiriya, though this is not certain. Josephus refers to a fortified village near Emmaus in Samaria that was razed in the events after Herod’s death (A.J. 17.290, J.W. 2.69).

 

Saura

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War probable

Evidence: §27 and §34 are both found there, which is probably not a coincidence. Both served under the Herodians, probably from longstanding military colonies.

 

Scythopolis

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: Also known as Beth Shean. Josephus reports an ala already present shortly before the Jewish War (Life 120-121) and a larger post-War presence is assured from epigraphic finds (§47; cf. AE 1939.158) in addition to its fortifications – most likely a portion of legio VI Ferrata. Note also the soldier listed in §184.

 

Sebaste

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War certain

Evidence: Josephus reports Herod the Great refounded Samaria as a veteran colony that served as a recruitment centre in the mid-20s BCE. This is well documented with textual finds from Herod through the second century (§3; §§225245), with no evidence of absence during any period.

 

Seeia

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: §§1418 are the only military evidence at the site certainly from the period.  Most likely Lucius made monuments in isolation, as his other inscriptions derive from nearby Canatha. If there was a military presence here, it was probably just an extension of that in Canatha.  But note an inscription referring to “the year that the army was in Seeia, the place where the ‘wdh tribe revolted…” (Zeinaddin 2008: 335); it is not clear when this event happened, but it seems likely this occupation was a temporary movement of the garrison at al-Namara to Seeia.

 

Sepphoris

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War probable

Evidence: Herod apparently kept a large arsenal at the time of his death; this same arsenal ultimately led to Antipas’s exile decades later. Its friendliness to Rome during the Jewish War and influx of Jewish peasants probably resulted in a permanent garrison afterwards. However, its Hellenistic fort went out of use around 66 CE. See also (Isaac 1992: 117) on possibly relevant rabbinic material.

 

Sha’ar ha-Amaqim

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: A small fort from the late third century BCE that was abandoned around the turn of the era. See (Rocca 2008: 182).

 

Shalem, Tel

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War certain

Evidence: §314, combined with an undatable inscription mentioning legio VI Ferrata (Tzori 1971) suggest a post-War presence. A large bronze statue of Hadrian in military garb also indicates military presence upon his arrival in Palestine in 130 CE, though the time of the garrison’s arrival is impossible to determine.

 

Sharuhen, Tel

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War impossible

Evidence: Also known as Tel el-Far‘ah. The fort was in use during Herodian times, but numismatic evidence indicates it was abandoned during the War. See the discussion in (Shatzman 1983: 142). I include it on the map, considering uncertainties around Judaea’s southern extent.

 

Tarichaea

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War possible; post-War possible

Evidence: If the identification of Tarichaea with Magdala is accurate, then one assumes the Semitic name (meaning tower) held some significance, not to mention the Herodian policy of fortifying capitals of toparchies.  If it was used pre-War, there is little reason for Agrippa II to have removed his forces from it after the War.

 

Tiberias

Period: Herodian impossible; pre-War certain; post-War probable

Evidence: The city was founded under Antipas and as the capital of Galilee, with two massive towers guarding the entrance gate. Josephus himself oversaw additional walls to the city during the War (J.W. 2.572-573). Roman presence is certain after the Bar Kokhba War (e.g., IGR 3.1204, rabbinic literature), though its post-War presence remains plausible.

 

Tililiya, Khirbet

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War possible

Evidence: The site is now inaccessible, but earlier surveyors suggest either Roman (“Titus or Severus”) or “Late Roman” periods for a large fortification. There is no way to know whether it was constructed before or after the Bar Kokhba War.  See the discussion in (Fischer, Isaac, and Roll 1996: 250).

 

Trachonitis (unknown sites)

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War certain; post-War possible

Evidence: Josephus mentions Herod the Great’s formation of an Idumaean military colony in Trachonitis, comprising 3000 soldiers (A.J. 16.285).  This was done at some point 9-6 BCE.  It is entirely uncertain where this site might be more precisely located and Josephus never mentions it again. See discussion in (Shatzman 1991: 171-175), suggesting that these men were spread throughout the region. Unfortunately, most of the inscriptions found in the region are undated and thus of little help. There are also many forts in the region, but it is difficult to ascertain when they were occupied.

 

Tur Shimon

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War improbable; post-War impossible

Evidence: A Hellenistic fortress, probably founded under the Hasmonaeans was used as an agricultural site by the end of the Second Temple Period. See the discussion in (Zissu 2008).

 

Tzalmon, Horvat

Period: Herodian improbable; pre-War improbable; post-War improbable

Evidence: A centurion’s sarcophagus was found here (§4), but its presence here probably resulted from a makeshift burial and not a garrison.

 

Umm Hadar

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War impossible; post-War impossible

Evidence: Small fort inherited from Hasmonaeans that was destroyed before the turn of the Era.  See discussion in (Frangié-Joly 2015; Frangié and Salles 2009).

 

‘Urmeh, Khirbet

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War impossible

Evidence: A fortress was erected in the Hasmonaean period and abandoned during the Jewish War.  See the discussion and citations in (Eschel and Erlich 2002).

 

Uzza, Tel

Period: Herodian possible; pre-War probable; post-War possible

Evidence: A fort inherited from Hasmonaean times was abandoned, but re-used again during the early Roman period and possibly the Herodian period.  It was re-used again at a later point, but precision in dating is impossible. See discussion in (Beit-Arieh 1993).

 

Wadi Murabba’at

Period: Herodian impossible; pre-War possible; post-War probable

Evidence: §36 and §58 were found at Wadi Murabba’at. It is difficult to date the military presence at the site, but a pre-Bar Kokhba presence is possible given the other textual finds.

 

Ya’ad

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Fortified buildings seem to have been in use at the same time as those of Yuvalim. See brief discussion in (Abu Raya 2013).

 

Yuvalim

Period: Herodian probable; pre-War probable; post-War improbable

Evidence: Fortified tower and road station with evidence of use until the War.  See discussions in (Abu Raya 2011; 2013).

 

Zeror, Tel

Period: Herodian certain; pre-War possible; post-War improbable

Evidence: Constructed in the 50s BCE, this tower fell out of use in the 2nd century CE.  (Ogawa 1984) suggests that its military use declined early on.

 

References

 

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[1] Mordechai Gichon has been rumoured to be working on a similar gazetteer since the 1990s, but it has yet to materialize.  Gichon recently passed away, so it is unlikely it will ever see print.

[2] The term “Palestine” will refer to the contiguous lands controlled by Herod the Great and/or his descendants at their fullest extent (i.e., Judaea, Galilee, Peraea, Batanaea, Gaza), as well as the entire Decapolis (including Damascus) and other independent cities in the area like Ascalon. The primary reason for defining Palestine as such is to distinguish lands marked by Herodian history from other nearby land (e.g., Syria, Nabataea, Emesa). This distinction corresponds closely with the region in which the Gospels depicts Jesus’ activity, omitting only Tyre and Sidon. Excluded from my definition of Palestine are Chalcis and other regions over which Herodians or those marrying into the family acted as Roman governors (e.g., Egypt). A similar overview can be found in (Isaac 1992: 427-435), though the present one is updated and differs in geographical and chronological scope.